Near-open central vowel

Vowel sound represented by ⟨ɐ⟩ in IPA
Near-open central vowel
ɐ
IPA Number324
Audio sample
source · help
Encoding
Entity (decimal)ɐ
Unicode (hex)U+0250
X-SAMPA6
Braille⠲ (braille pattern dots-256)⠁ (braille pattern dots-1)
Image
IPA: Vowels
Front Central Back
Close
•
•
Near-close
Close-mid
•
•
Mid
Open-mid
Near-open
•
ɐ
Open
•
•

Legend: unrounded • rounded

The near-open central vowel, or near-low central vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɐ⟩, a rotated lowercase double-story a.

In English this vowel is most typically transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʌ⟩, i.e. as if it were open-mid back. That pronunciation is still found in some dialects, but many speakers use a central vowel like [ɐ] or [ɜ]. To avoid the trap–strut merger, Standard Southern British English is moving away from the [ɐ] quality towards [ʌ] found in RP spoken in the first half of the 20th century (e.g. in Daniel Jones's speech).[2]

Much like ⟨ə⟩, ⟨ɐ⟩ is a versatile symbol that is not defined for roundedness[3] and that can be used for vowels that are near-open central,[4] near-open near-front,[5] near-open near-back,[6] open-mid central,[7] open central[8] or an (often unstressed) vowel with variable height, backness and/or roundedness that is produced in that general area.[9] For open central unrounded vowels transcribed with ⟨ɐ⟩, see open central unrounded vowel.

When the usual transcription of the near-open near-front and the near-open near-back variants is different from ⟨ɐ⟩, they are listed in near-open front unrounded vowel and open back unrounded vowel or open back rounded vowel, respectively.

The near-open central unrounded vowel is sometimes the only open vowel in a language[10] and then is typically transcribed with ⟨a⟩.

Features

  • Its vowel height is near-open, also known as near-low, which means the tongue is positioned similarly to an open vowel, but is slightly more constricted – that is, the tongue is positioned similarly to a low vowel, but slightly higher.
  • Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel.
  • It is undefined for roundedness, which means that it can be either rounded or unrounded. In practice however, the unrounded variant is more common.

Occurrence

In the following list, ⟨ɐ⟩ is assumed to be unrounded. The rounded variant is transcribed as ⟨ɐ̹⟩. Some instances of the latter may actually be fully open.

Language Word IPA Meaning Notes
Adyghe сэ / să [sɐ] 'I' Varies between near-open and open-mid [ɜ]. See Adyghe phonology
Bengali[11] পা / pa [pɐ] 'leg' Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Bengali phonology
Bulgarian[7] пара/para [pɐˈra] 'coin' Unstressed allophone of /ɤ/ and /a/.[7] May be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ə⟩. See Bulgarian phonology
Burmese[12] မတ်/maat [mɐʔ] 'vertical' Allophone of /a/ in syllables closed by a glottal stop and when nasalized; realized as fully open [ä] in open oral syllables.[13]
Catalan Barcelona metropolitan area[14][15] emmagatzemar [ɐm(ː)ɐɣ̞ɐd͡z̺ɐˈmä] 'to store' Corresponds to [ə] in other Eastern dialects. See Catalan phonology
Chinese Cantonese[16] 心 / sam1 [sɐ̝m˥] 'heart' Open-mid.[16] See Cantonese phonology
Shanghainese[17] 砍 [kɐʔ˦] 'to cut' Appears only in closed syllables; the exact height and backness is somewhat variable.[17]
Danish[18] fatter [ˈfætɐ] 'understands' Typically realized the same as /ɔ/, i.e. [ɒ̽]. Other possible realizations are [ɐ] and [ə̠].[18] See Danish phonology
Dinka Luanyjang[19] laŋ [lɐ́ŋ] 'berry' Short allophone of /a/; varies between near-open [ɐ] and open-mid [ɐ̝].[19]
Emilian Bulåggna [buˈlʌɲːɐ] 'Bologna' Centralized /a/.
English California[20] nut [nɐt] 'nut' See English phonology
Cockney[21][22] [nɐ̟ʔ] Near-front.[21]
East Anglian[23] [nɐʔ] Used in some places (e.g. Colchester) instead of the traditional [ʌ].[23]
New Zealand[24] [nɐʔt] Varies between near-open near-front [ɐ̟], near-open central [ɐ], open near-front [a̠] and open central [ɐ̞].[24] See New Zealand English phonology
Received Pronunciation[2][4] Increasingly retracted to [ʌ] to avoid the trap-strut merger.[2] See English phonology
Inland Northern American[25] bet [bɐt] 'bet' Variation of /ɛ/ used in some places whose accents have undergone the Northern cities vowel shift.
Middle Class London[26] lot [lɐ̹ʔt] 'lot' Rounded; can be back [ɒ] instead.[26] See English phonology
Galician feita [ˈfejt̪ɐ] 'done' Realization of final unstressed /a/. See Galician phonology
German Standard[9] oder [ˈoːdɐ]ⓘ 'or' The exact height, backness and roundedness is somewhere between [ä] and [ɔ], depending on the environment. Sometimes, an opening diphthong of the [əɐ̯]-type is used instead.[9] See Standard German phonology
Northern German accents[27] kommen [ˈkʰɐmən] 'to come' Varies between central [ɐ] and back [ɑ]; corresponds to an open-mid rounded [ɔ] in Standard German.[27] See Standard German phonology
Greek Modern Standard[10] ακακία / akakía [ɐkɐˈc̠i.ɐ] 'acacia' Most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Modern Greek phonology
Hausa[28] [example needed] Possible allophone of /a/, which can be as close as [ə] and as open as [ä].[28]
Hindustani[29] दस/دَس/das [ˈd̪ɐs] 'ten' Common realization of /ə/.[29] See Hindustani phonology
Korean[30] 하나 / hana [hɐnɐ] 'one' Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Korean phonology
Kumzari[5] گپ / gap [ɡɐ̟p] 'large' Near-front.[5]
Limburgish Maastrichtian[31] väöl [vɐ̹ːl] 'much' Rounded; contrasts with the open-mid [ɞː] in words with Accent 2 ([ɐ̹ː] itself is always toneless).[32] It may be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɶː⟩, as it is a phonological front vowel.
Venlo dialect[33] aan [ˈɐːn] 'on' Corresponds to [aː] in other dialects.
Lithuanian kas [kɐs̪] 'what' See Lithuanian phonology
Luxembourgish[6] Kanner [ˈkʰɑnɐ̠] 'children' Near-back.[34] See Luxembourgish phonology
Malayalam പത്ത് [pɐt̪ːɨ̆] 'ten' See Malayalam phonology
Mapudungun[35] karü [ˈkɐ̝ʐɘ̝] 'green' Open-mid;[35] often transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.
Norwegian Østfold dialect[36] bada [ˈbɐ̹̂ːdɐ] 'to bathe' The example word illustrates both the rounded [ɐ̹] and the unrounded [ɐ].
Piedmontese Eastern Piedmont pauta [ˈpɑwtɐ] 'mud' Common realization of final unstressed /a/.
Portuguese[37][38] aja [ˈäʒɐ]ⓘ 'act' (subj.) Closer [ɐ̝] in European Portuguese than in Brazilian Portuguese ([ɐ]).[37][38] See Portuguese phonology
Punjabi[39] ਖੰਡ / کھنڈ [ˈkʰɐ̌ɳɖᵊ] 'sugar' Common realization of /ə/, the inherent vowel of Punjabi. See Punjabi phonology
ਪਊਆ / پوّا [pɐwːä] 'metric half pint' Can occur as realization of tense /i/ or /u/ in some contexts followed by a geminate semi-vowel.
Romanian Moldavian dialects[40] bărbat [bɐrˈbat] 'man' Corresponds to [ə] in standard Romanian. See Romanian phonology
Russian Standard Moscow[41] голова / golova [ɡəɫ̪ɐˈvä]ⓘ 'head' Corresponds to [ʌ] in standard Saint Petersburg pronunciation;[41] occurs mostly immediately before stressed syllables. See Russian phonology
Sabiny[42] [example needed] Contrasts overshort unrounded and overshort rounded near-open central vowels.[43]
Ukrainian[44] слива / slyva [ˈslɪwɐ] 'plum' See Ukrainian phonology
Vietnamese[45] chếch [cɐ̆jk̚] 'askance' Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ə̆⟩. See Vietnamese phonology
Xumi[46][47] [tsʰɐ˦] 'salt' Near-open [ɐ] in Lower Xumi, open-mid [ɐ̝] in Upper Xumi. The latter phone may be transcribed with ⟨ɜ⟩. The example word is from Lower Xumi.[47][48]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
  2. ^ a b c Cruttenden (2014), p. 122.
  3. ^ International Phonetic Association (1999), p. 166.
  4. ^ a b Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 186.
  5. ^ a b c Anonby (2011), p. 378.
  6. ^ a b Gilles & Trouvain (2013), pp. 68, 70.
  7. ^ a b c Ternes & Vladimirova-Buhtz (1999), p. 56.
  8. ^ Cox & Fletcher (2017), pp. 64–65.
  9. ^ a b c Krech et al. (2009), p. 86.
  10. ^ a b Arvaniti (2007), p. 25.
  11. ^ Khan (2010), p. 222.
  12. ^ Watkins (2001), p. 293.
  13. ^ Watkins (2001), pp. 292–293.
  14. ^ Rafel (1999), p. 14.
  15. ^ Harrison (1997), pp. 2.
  16. ^ a b Zee (1999), p. 59.
  17. ^ a b Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), p. 328.
  18. ^ a b Basbøll (2005), p. 58.
  19. ^ a b Remijsen & Manyang (2009), pp. 117, 119.
  20. ^ Ladefoged (1999), p. 42.
  21. ^ a b Wells (1982), p. 305.
  22. ^ Hughes & Trudgill (1979), p. 35.
  23. ^ a b Trudgill (2004), p. 167.
  24. ^ a b Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
  25. ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (1997), A National Map of the Regional Dialects of American English, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, retrieved March 15, 2013
  26. ^ a b Altendorf & Watt (2004:188). The authors differentiate between symbols [ɒ̟] and [ɒ̈]; the former denotes a more back vowel.
  27. ^ a b Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
  28. ^ a b Schuh & Yalwa (1999), pp. 90–91.
  29. ^ a b Ohala (1999), p. 102.
  30. ^ Lee (1999), p. 121.
  31. ^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 158–159, 162.
  32. ^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 159, 161–162, 164.
  33. ^ Peeters (1951), p. 39.
  34. ^ Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
  35. ^ a b Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 92.
  36. ^ Jahr (1990:92)
  37. ^ a b Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
  38. ^ a b Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
  39. ^ Bhardwaj, Mangat Rai (2016). "Chapter 4: Tone and Related Phenomena in Panjabi". Panjabi: A Comprehensive Grammar (in English and Punjabi). Abingdon: Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-315-76080-3.
  40. ^ Pop (1938), p. 29.
  41. ^ a b Yanushevskaya & Bunčić (2015), p. 225.
  42. ^ "UPSID 4)S". Retrieved 27 January 2016.
  43. ^ "UPSID SEBEI". Retrieved 27 January 2016.
  44. ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
  45. ^ Hoang (1965), p. 24.
  46. ^ Chirkova & Chen (2013), pp. 369–370.
  47. ^ a b Chirkova, Chen & Kocjančič Antolík (2013), pp. 388–389.
  48. ^ Chirkova & Chen (2013), p. 369.

References

  • Altendorf, Ulrike; Watt, Dominic (2004), "4. The Southeast", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 181–196, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
  • Anonby, Erik John (2011), "Kumzari", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 41 (3): 375–380, doi:10.1017/S0025100311000314
  • Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11, retrieved 2013-12-11
  • Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
  • Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, ISBN 978-0-203-97876-4
  • Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830
  • Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043
  • Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya (2013), "Xumi, Part 1: Lower Xumi, the Variety of the Lower and Middle Reaches of the Shuiluo River", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (3): 363–379, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000157
  • Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya; Kocjančič Antolík, Tanja (2013), "Xumi, Part 2: Upper Xumi, the Variety of the Upper Reaches of the Shuiluo River", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (3): 381–396, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000169
  • Cox, Felicity; Fletcher, Janet (2017) [First published 2012], Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-316-63926-9
  • Cruttenden, Alan (2014), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092
  • Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223, S2CID 249414876
  • Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
  • Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
  • Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
  • Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2), University of Nijmegen, Centre for Language Studies: 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526, S2CID 145782045
  • Harrison, Phil (1997), The Relative Complexity of Catalan Vowels and Their Perceptual Correlates (PDF), UCL Working Papers in Linguistics 9
  • Hoang, Thi Quynh Hoa (1965), A phonological contrastive study of Vietnamese and English (PDF), Lubbock, Texas: Texas Technological College
  • Hughes, Arthur; Trudgill, Peter (1979), English Accents and Dialects: An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of British English, Baltimore: University Park Press
  • International Phonetic Association (1999), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
  • Jahr, Ernst Håkon (1990), Den Store dialektboka, Oslo: Novus, ISBN 8270991678
  • Khan, Sameer ud Dowla (2010), "Bengali (Bangladeshi Standard)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (2): 221–225, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000071
  • Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W (2004), Upton, Clive (ed.), A handbook of varieties of English, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
  • Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009), Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch, Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6
  • Ladefoged, Peter (1999), "American English", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 41–44
  • Lee, Hyun Bok (1999), "Korean", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–122, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Ohala, Manjari (1999), "Hindi", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 100–103, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Peeters, F.J.P. (1951), Het klankkarakter van het Venloos, Nijmegen: Dekker & v.d. Vegt
  • Pop, Sever (1938), Micul Atlas Linguistic Român, Muzeul Limbii Române Cluj
  • Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (in Catalan) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-446-0
  • Remijsen, Bert; Manyang, Caguor Adong (2009), "Luanyjang Dinka", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (1): 113–124, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003605, hdl:20.500.11820/ccca8aff-adb2-42c0-9daa-f1e5777ee69f
  • Roca, Iggy; Johnson, Wyn (1999), A Course in Phonology, Blackwell Publishing
  • Sadowsky, Scott; Painequeo, Héctor; Salamanca, Gastón; Avelino, Heriberto (2013), "Mapudungun", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 87–96, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000369
  • Schuh, Russell G.; Yalwa, Lawan D. (1999), "Hausa", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 90–95, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Ternes, Elmer; Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana (1999), "Bulgarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–57, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Trudgill, Peter (2004), "The dialect of East Anglia: Phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 163–177, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
  • Watkins, Justin W. (2001), "Illustrations of the IPA: Burmese" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 31 (2): 291–295, doi:10.1017/S0025100301002122, S2CID 232344700
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  • Yanushevskaya, Irena; Bunčić, Daniel (2015), "Russian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (2): 221–228, doi:10.1017/S0025100314000395
  • Zee, Eric (1999), "Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese)", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65236-7.

External links

  • List of languages with [ɐ] on PHOIBLE
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IPA topics
IPA
Special topics
Encodings
Pulmonic consonants
Place → Labial Coronal Dorsal Laryngeal
Manner ↓ Bi­labial Labio­dental Linguo­labial Dental Alveolar Post­alveolar Retro­flex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn­geal/epi­glottal Glottal
Nasal m̥ m ɱ̊ ɱ n̼ n̥ n ɳ̊ ɳ ɲ̊ ɲ ŋ̊ ŋ ɴ̥ ɴ
Plosive p b p̪ b̪ t̼ d̼ t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʡ ʔ
Sibilant affricate ts dz t̠ʃ d̠ʒ tʂ dʐ tɕ dʑ
Non-sibilant affricate pɸ bβ p̪f b̪v t̪θ d̪ð tɹ̝̊ dɹ̝ t̠ɹ̠̊˔ d̠ɹ̠˔ cç ɟʝ kx ɡɣ qχ ɢʁ ʡʜ ʡʢ ʔh
Sibilant fricative s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ɕ ʑ
Non-sibilant fricative ɸ β f v θ̼ ð̼ θ ð θ̠ ð̠ ɹ̠̊˔ ɹ̠˔ ɻ̊˔ ɻ˔ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ
Approximant ʋ ɹ ɻ j ɰ ʔ̞
Tap/flap ⱱ̟ ⱱ ɾ̼ ɾ̥ ɾ ɽ̊ ɽ ɢ̆ ʡ̆
Trill ʙ̥ ʙ r̥ r ɽ̊r̥ ɽr ʀ̥ ʀ ʜ ʢ
Lateral affricate tɬ dɮ tꞎ d𝼅 c𝼆 ɟʎ̝ k𝼄 ɡʟ̝
Lateral fricative ɬ ɮ ꞎ 𝼅 𝼆 ʎ̝ 𝼄 ʟ̝
Lateral approximant l ɭ ʎ ʟ ʟ̠
Lateral tap/flap ɺ̥ ɺ 𝼈̥ 𝼈 ʎ̆ ʟ̆

Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced, to the left are voiceless. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.

Non-pulmonic consonants
BL LD D A PA RF P V U EG
Ejective Stop pʼ tʼ ʈʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ ʡʼ
Affricate p̪fʼ t̪θʼ tsʼ t̠ʃʼ tʂʼ tɕʼ kxʼ qχʼ
Fricative ɸʼ fʼ θʼ sʼ ʃʼ ʂʼ ɕʼ xʼ χʼ
Lateral affricate tɬʼ c𝼆ʼ k𝼄ʼ q𝼄ʼ
Lateral fricative ɬʼ
Click
(top: velar;
bottom: uvular) 		Tenuis kʘ
qʘ 		kǀ
qǀ 		kǃ
qǃ 		k𝼊
q𝼊 		kǂ
qǂ
Voiced ɡʘ
ɢʘ 		ɡǀ
ɢǀ 		ɡǃ
ɢǃ 		ɡ𝼊
ɢ𝼊 		ɡǂ
ɢǂ
Nasal ŋʘ
ɴʘ 		ŋǀ
ɴǀ 		ŋǃ
ɴǃ 		ŋ𝼊
ɴ𝼊 		ŋǂ
ɴǂ 		ʞ
 
Tenuis lateral kǁ
qǁ
Voiced lateral ɡǁ
ɢǁ
Nasal lateral ŋǁ
ɴǁ
Implosive Voiced ɓ ɗ ᶑ ʄ ɠ ʛ
Voiceless ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ᶑ̊ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥
Co-articulated consonants
Labial–velar
ɧ
Sj-sound (variable)
Lateral approximant
Velarized alveolar
Labial–velar
Labial–alveolar
Other
Front Central Back
Close
•
•
Near-close
Close-mid
•
•
Mid
Open-mid
Near-open
•
ɐ
Open
•
•

Legend: unrounded • rounded